Advances in laser, microwave, radio-frequency, and similar technologies have given rise to many new treatments of disease and injury that seek to raise the temperature of cells and tissues to supra-physiologic levels. Copious examples are found in, among other specialties, cardiology, dermatology, gynecology, neurosurgery, oncology, ophthalmology, orthopedics, and urology. Most of the particular clinical procedures are motivated primarily by the availability of a new technology, however, not by an understanding of the underlying biothermomechanics. This article reviews some of the literature on the effects of supra-physiologic temperatures on cells and tissues as well as some of the available mathematical models. Because of the absence of any textbook on biothermomechanics, some basic concepts are included for the interested student. Because of space limitations, however, most research findings are simply stated, and the reader is directed to the relevant papers for details. Finally, because of the desire to attract diverse researchers to the field, open problems are identified. Indeed, it is hoped that this review will generate excitement with regard to the potential of improving health care delivery through the important and challenging field of Continuum Biothermomechanics. There are 177 references cited in this review article.
1.
Manjo G (1975), The Healing Hand, Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA.
2.
Fung YC (1990), Biomechanics: Motion, Flow, Stress, and Growth, Springer-Verlag, NY.
3.
Malvern LE (1969), Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium, Prentice-Hall, NJ.
4.
Humphrey JD (2002), Cardiovascular Solid Mechanics: Cells, Tissues, and Organs, Springer-Verlag, NY.
5.
Taber
LA
(1995
), Biomechanics of growth, remodeling, and morphogenesis
, Appl. Mech. Rev.
48
, 487
–545
.6.
Humphrey
JD
and Rajagopal
KR
(2002
), A constrained mixture model for growth and remodeling in soft tissues
, Math. Model Meth. Appl. Sci.
12
, 407
–430
.7.
Alberts B, Bray D, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, and Watson JD (1994), Molecular Biology of the Cell, Garland Publishing, NY.
8.
Lillie
MA
and Gosline
JM
(1990
), The effects of hydration on the dynamic mechanical properties of elastin
, Biopolymers
29
, 1147
–1160
.9.
Davidson JM and Giro MG (1986), Control of elastin synthesis: Molecular and cellular aspects, Regulation of Matrix Accumulation, RP Mecham (ed), Academic Press, NY.
10.
Dorrington
KL
and McCrum
NG
(1977
), Elastin as a rubber
, Biopolymers
16
, 1201
–1222
.11.
Treloar LRG (1975), The Physics of Rubber Elasticity, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
12.
Hoeve
CAJ
and Flory
PJ
(1958
), The elastic properties of elastin
, J. Appl. Phys.
80
, 6523
–6526
.13.
Lillie
MA
, Chalmers
WG
, and Gosline
JM
(1994
), The effects of heating on the mechanical properties of arterial elastin
, Connect. Tissue Res.
31
, 23
–35
.14.
Urry DW (1989), Physiochemical properties of elastin and constituent peptides, Elastin and Elastases, L Robert and W Hornebeck, (eds), CRC Press, Boca Raton.
15.
Robert L and Hornbeck W (1989), Elastin and Elastases, Vol I, CRC Press, FL.
16.
Kucharz EJ (1992), The Collagens, Biochemistry and Pathophysiology, Springer-Verlag, NY.
17.
Le Lous
M
, Allain
JC
, Cohen-Solal
L
, and Maroteaux
P
(1983
), Hydrothermal isometric tension curves form different connective tissues. Role of collagen genetic types and noncollagenous components
, Connect. Tissue Res.
11
, 199
–206
.18.
Danielsen
CC
(1981
), Thermal stability of reconstituted collagen fibrils, Shrinkage characteristics upon in vitro maturation
, Mech. Ageing Dev.
15
, 269
–278
.19.
Miles
CA
and Ghelashvili
M
(1999
), Polymer-in-a-box mechanism for the thermal stabilization of collagen molecules in fibers
, Biophys. J.
76
, 3243
–3252
.20.
Ayad S, Boot-Handford RP, Humphries MJ, Kadler KE, and Shuttleworth CA (1994), The Extracellular Matrix Facts Book, Academic Press, NY.
21.
Brandts JF (1969), Conformational transitions of proteins in water and in aqueous mixtures, Structure and Stability of Biological Macromolecule, Marcel Dekker, New York.
22.
Privalov PL (1982), Stability of proteins, proteins which do not present a single cooperative system, Advances in Protein Chemistry, Vol 35, Academic Press, NY, 55–104.
23.
Bailey
AJ
and Lister
D
(1968
), Thermally labile cross-links in native collagen
, Nature (London)
220
, 280
–281
.24.
Le Lous
M
, Allain
J-C
, Cohen-Solal
L
, and Maroteaux
P
(1982
), The rate of collagen maturation in rat and human skin
, Connect. Tissue Res.
9
, 253
–262
.25.
Miles
CA
, Burjanadze
TV
, and Bailey
AJ
(1995
), The kinetics of the thermal denaturation of collagen in unrestrained rat tail tendon determined by differential scanning calorimetry
, J. Mol. Biol.
245
, 437
–446
.26.
Miles
CA
and Bailey
AJ
(2001
), Thermally liable domains in the collagen molecule
, Micron
32
, 325
–332
.27.
Danielsen
CC
(1982
), Difference in thermal stability of type I and type III collagen from rat skin
, Biochem. J.
203
, 323
–326
.28.
Flory
PJ
and Garrett
RR
(1958
), Phase transformations in collagen and gelatin systems
, J. Am. Chem. Soc.
80
, 4836
–4845
.29.
Miles
CA
(1993
), Kinetics of collagen denaturation in mammalian lens capsules studied by differential scanning calorimetry
, Int. J. Biol. Macromol.
15
, 265
–271
.30.
Bailey
AJ
, Sims
TJ
, Avery
NC
, and Miles
CA
(1993
), Chemistry of collagen cross-links, glucose-mediated covalent cross-linking of type-IV collagen in lens capsules
, Biochem. J.
296
, 489
–496
.31.
Krag
S
, Danielsen
CC
, and Andreassen
TT
(1997
), Thermal and mechanical stability of the lens capsule
, Curr. Eye Res.
17
, 470
–477
.32.
Pearce
J
, Thomsen
S
, Vijverberg
H
, and McMurray
T
(1993
), Kinetics for birefringence changes in thermally coagulated rat skin collagen
, Proc. SPIE
1876
, 180
–186
.33.
Pearce JA and Thomsen S (1995), Rate process analysis of thermal damage, Optical-Thermal Response of Laser-Irradiated Tissue, AJ Welch and MJC van Gemert (eds), Plenum Press, NY.
34.
Thomsen
S
(1999
), Mapping of thermal injury in biologic tissues using quantitative pathologic techniques
, Proc. SPIE
3594
, 82
–95
.35.
Thomsen
S
(2000
), Qualitative and quantitative pathology of clinically relevant thermal lesions
, Crit. Rev. Optical Sci. Tech.
75
, 425
–459
.36.
Brinkmann
R
, Kampmeier
J
, Grotehusmann
U
, Vogel
A
, Kkoop
N
, Asiyo-Vogel
M
, and Birngruber
R
(1996
), Corneal collagen denaturation in laserthermo-keratoplasty
, Proc. SPIE
2681
, 56
–63
.37.
Post
MJ
, de Graaf-Bos
AN
, Posthuma
G
, de Groot
PG
, Sixma
JJ
, and Borst
C
(1996
), Interventional thermal injury of the arterial wall, unfolding of von Willebrand factor and its increased binding to collagen after 55°C heating
, Thromb. Haemostasis
75
, 515
–519
.38.
Verzar
F
and Nagy
IZS
(1970
), Electronmicroscopic analysis of thermal collagen denaturation in rat tail tendons
, Gerontologia (Basel)
16
, 77
–82
.39.
Nagy
IZS
, Toth
VN
, and Verzar
F
(1974
), High resolution electron microscopy of thermal collagen denaturation in tail tendons of young, adult and old rats
, Connect. Tissue Res.
2
, 265
–272
.40.
Rem
AI
, Oosterhuis
JA
, Journee-de Korver
HG
, Van Den Berg
TJTP
, and Keunen
JEE
(2001
), Temperature dependence of thermal damage to the sclera, Exploring the heat tolerance of the sclera for transscleral thermotherapy
, Exp. Eye Res.
72
, 153
–162
.41.
Ho¨rmann
H
and Schlebusch
H
(1971
), Reversible and irreversible denaturation of collagen fibers
, Biochem.
10
, 932
–937
.42.
Johnson FH, Eyring H, and Stover BJ (1974), The Theory of Rate Processes in Biology and Medicine, John Wiley, NY.
43.
Verzar
F
(1964
), Aging of the collagen fiber
, Int. Rev. Connect Tissue Res.
2
, 243
–300
.44.
Forrester
JS
, Litvack
F
, and Grundfest
W
(1988
), Vaporization of atheroma in man, the role of lasers in the era of balloon angioplasty
, Int. J. Cardiol.
20
, 1
–7
.45.
Lee
BI
, Becker
GJ
, Waller
BF
, Barry
KJ
, Connolly
RJ
, Kaplan
J
, Shapiro
AR
, and Nardella
PC
(1989
), Thermal compression and molding of atherosclerotic vascular tissue with use of radiofrequency energy: Implications for radiofrequency balloon angioplasty
, JACC
13
, 1167
–1175
.46.
Spears
JR
, James
LM
, Leonard
BM
, Sinclair
IN
, Jenkin
RD
, Motamedi
M
, and Sinofsky
EL
(1988
), Plaque-media rewelding with reversible tissue optical property changes during receptive cw Nd, YAG laser exposure
, Lasers Surg. Med.
8
, 477
–485
.47.
Saito
S
, Arai
H
, Kim
K
, and Aoki
N
(1994
), Initial clinical experiences with rescue unipolar radiofrequency thermal balloon angioplasty after abrupt or threatened vessel closure complicating elective conventional balloon coronary angioplasty
, JACC
24
, 1220
–1224
.48.
Morgan
JE
, Ellingham
RB
, Young
RD
, and Trmal
GJ
(1996
), The mechanical properties of the human lens capsule following capsulorhexis or radio frequency diathermy capsulotomy
, Arch. Ophthalmol. (Chicago)
114
, 1110
–1115
.49.
Cammon
DS
(2000
), Atrial fibrillation: Non-pharmacologic approaches
, Am. J. Cardiol.
85
, 25D–35D
25D–35D
.50.
Fram
DB
, Berns
E
, Aretz
T
, Gillam
LD
, Mikan
JS
, Waters
D
, and Mckay
RG
(1995
), Feasibility of radiofrequency powered, thermal balloon ablation of atrioventricular bypass tracts via the coronary sinus, in vivo canine studies
, PACE
18
, 1518
–1530
.51.
Taylor
GW
, Kay
GN
, Zheng
X
, Bishop
S
, and Ideker
RE
(2000
), Pathological effects of extensive radiofrequency energy applications in the pulmonary veins in dogs
, Circulation
101
, 1736
–1742
.52.
Anderson
RR
(2000
), Lasers in dermatology-A critical update
, J. Dermatol.
27
, 700
–705
.53.
Welch
AJ
(1984
), The thermal response of laser irradiated tissue
, IEEE J. Quantum Electron.
20
, 1471
–1481
.54.
McKenzie
AL
(1990
), Physics of thermal processes in laser-tissue interaction
, Phys. Med. Biol.
35
, 1175
–1209
.55.
Nath
S
and Haines
DE
(1995
), Biophysics and pathology of catheter energy delivery systems
, Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis.
37
, 185
–204
.56.
Ropoulos B and Crosby P (1997), Tissue specificity is critical to new laser surgery procedures, Biophotonics Int., 40–45.
57.
Neuwirth
RS
(1995
), Endometrial ablation using a thermal balloon system
, Contemp OB/GYN
40
, 35
–38
.58.
Loffer
FD
(2001
), Three-year comparison of thermal balloon and rollerball ablation in treatment of menorrhagia
, J. Am. Assoc. Gynecol. Laparosc.
8
, 48
–54
.59.
Korn
AP
(2000
), Endometrial cryoablation and thermal ablation
, Clin. Obstet. Gynecol.
43
, 575
–583
.60.
Emery
J
(1999
), Capsular opacification after cataract surgery
, Curr. Opin. Ophthalmol.
10
, 73
–80
.61.
Altamirano
D
, Mermoud
A
, Pittet
N
, van Melle
G
, and Herbort
CP
(1992
), Aqueous humor analysis after Nd, YAG laser capsulotomy with the laser flare-cell meter
, J. Cataract Refractive Surg.
18
, 554
–558
.62.
Barnard
K
, Burgess
SA
, Carter
DA
, and Woolley
DM
(1992
), Three dimensional structure of type IV collagen in the mammalian lens capsule
, J. Struct. Biol.
108
, 6
–13
.63.
Chang
J
, Soderberg
PG
, Denham
D
, Nose
I
, Lee
W
, Parel
J-M
(1996
), Temperature induced corneal shrinkage
, Proc. SPIE
2673
, 70
–76
.64.
Brinkmann
R
, Radt
B
, Flamm
C
, Kampmeier
J
, Koop
N
, Birngruber
R
(2000
), Influence of temperature and time on thermally induced forces in corneal collagen and the effect on laser thermokeratoplasty
, J. Cataract Refractive Surg.
26
, 744
–754
.65.
Kampmeier
J
, Radt
B
, Birngruber
R
, and Brinkman
R
(2000
), Thermal and biomechanical parameters of porcine cornea
, Cornea
19
, 355
–363
.66.
Selecky
MT
, Vangsness
CT
, Liao
W-L
, Saadat
V
, and Hedman
TP
(1999
), The effects of laser-induced collagen shortening on the biomechanical properties of the inferior glenohumeral ligament complex
, Am. J. Sports Med.
27
, 168
–172
.67.
Hayashi
K
, Hecht
P
, Thabit
G
, Peters
DM
, Vanderby
R
, Cooley
AJ
, Fanton
GS
, Orwin
JF
, and Markel
MD
(2000a
), The biologic response to laser thermal modification in an in vivo sheep model
, Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res.
373
, 265
–276
.68.
Arnoczky
SP
and Aksan
A
(2000
), Thermal modification of connective tissues, Basic science considerations and clinical implications
, J. Am. Acad. Orthop. Surg.
8
, 305
–313
.69.
Hayashi
K
, Peters
DM
, Thabit
III G
, Hecht
P
, Vanderby
Jr R
, Fanton
GS
, Markel
MD
(2000b
), The mechanism of joint capsule thermal modification in an in vitro sheep model
, Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res.
370
, 236
–249
.70.
Schaefer
SL
, Ciarelli
MJ
, Arnoczky
SP
, and Ross
HE
(1997
), Tissue shrinkage with the Holmium, Yttrium aluminum garnet laser. A postoperative assessment of tissue length, stiffness, and structure
, Am. J. Sports Med.
25
, 841
–848
.71.
Bagratashvili
VN
, Sobol
EN
, Sviridov
AP
, Popov
VK
, Omel’chenko
AI
, and Howdle
SM
(1997
), Thermal and diffusion processes in laser-induced stress relaxation and reshaping of cartilage
, J. Biomech.
30
, 813
–817
.72.
Kabalin
JN
and Butler
ED
(1995
), Costs of minimally invasive laser surgery compared with transurethral electrocautery resection of the prostate
, West. J. Med.
162
, 426
–429
.73.
Djavan
B
(2000
), Is transurethral microwave thermotherapy an alternative to medical therapy for patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia
, Tech. Urol.
6
, 300
–306
.74.
Pow-Sang
M
, Orihuela
E
, Motamedi
M
, Pow-Sang
JE
, Cowan
DF
, Dyer
R
, and Warren
MM
(1995
), Thermocoagulation effect of diode laser radiation in the human prostate: Acute and chronic study
, Urology
45
, 790
–794
.75.
Suzuki
T
, Kurokawa
K
, Suzuki
K
, Suzuki
K
, and Yamanaka
H
(1994
), Thermal changes in the canine prostate after transurethral balloon laser prostatectomy
, Prostate
24
, 262
–268
.76.
Bostwick
DG
and Larson
TR
(1995
), Transurethral microwave thermal therapy: Pathologic findings in the canine prostate
, Prostate
26
, 116
–122
.77.
Patel
UH
and Babbs
CF
(1993
), Development of a rapidly computable descriptor of prostate tissue temperature during transurethral conductive heat therapy for benign prostate hyperplasia
, Med. Biol. Eng. Comput.
31
, 475
–481
.78.
Anvari
B
, Rastegar
S
, and Motamedi
M
(1994
), Modeling of intraluminal heating of biological tissue, Implications for treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia
, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng.
41
, 854
–864
.79.
Bhowmick
S
, Swanlund
DJ
, and Bischof
JC
(2000
), Supraphysiological thermal injury in dunning AT-1 prostate tumor cells
, ASME J. Biomech. Eng.
122
, 51
–59
.80.
Stiller W (1989), Arrhenius Equation and Non-Equilibrium Kinetics, Teubner-Texte zur Physik, Leipzig.
81.
Moritz
AR
and Henriques
FC
(1947
), Studies of thermal injury, II: The relative importance of time and surface temperature in the causation of cutaneous burns
, Am. J. Pathol.
23
, 695
–720
.82.
Henriques
FC
(1947
), Studies in thermal injury, V: The predictability and the significance of thermally induced rate processes leading to irreversible epidermal injury
, Arch. Pathol.
43
, 489
–502
.83.
Diller KR and Klutke G-A (1993), Accuracy analysis of the Henriques model for predicting thermal burn injury, Advances in Bioheat and Mass Transfer, HTD-Vol 268, ASME, NY.
84.
Xu
Y
and Qian
R
(1995
), Analysis of thermal injury process based on enzyme deactivation mechanisms
, Trans of ASME
117
, 462
–465
.85.
Kato
H
, Uchida
N
, Ishida
T
, and Sugimura
K
(1995
), A unified model for cell-killing by heat, Interpretation of continuous, step-down, step-up and split heating
, Med. Hypotheses
45
, 11
–14
.86.
Mixter G, DeLhery GP, Derksen WL, and Monahan TI (1963), The influence of time on the death of Hela cells at elevated temperatures, Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Vol 3, CM Herzfeld (ed), Reinhold.
87.
Moussa
NA
, Tell
EN
, and Cravalho
EG
(1979
), Time progression of hemolysis of erythrocyte populations exposed to supra-physiological temperatures
, ASME J. Biomech. Eng.
101
, 213
–217
.88.
Lindegaard
JC
and Nielson
OS
(1990
), Time-temperature relationships for L1A2 cells step-down heated from 38 to 45 degrees Celsius in vitro
, Radiat. Res.
121
, 282
–287
.89.
Dewey
WC
(1994
), Arrhenius relationships from the molecule and cell to the clinic
, Int. J. Hyperthermia
10
, 457
–483
.90.
Rosner
GL
, Clegg
ST
, Prescott
DM
, Dewhirst
MW
(1996
), Estimation of cell survival in tumours heated to nonuniform temperature distributions
, Int. J. Hyperthermia
12
, 223
–239
.91.
Weir
CE
(1949
), Rate of shrinkage of tendon collagen-Heat, entropy and free energy of activation of the shrinkage of untreated tendon. Effect of acid salt, pickle, and tannage on the activation of tendon collagen
, J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc.
44
, 108
–140
.92.
Flory
PJ
and Spurr
OK
(1961
), Melting equilibrium for collagen fibers under stress, elasticity in the amorphous state
, J. Am. Chem. Soc.
83
, 1308
–1316
.93.
Le Lous
M
, Flandin
F
, Herbage
D
, and Allain
JC
(1982
), Influence of collagen denaturation on the chemorheological properties of skin, assessed by differential scanning calorimetry and hydrothermal isometric tension measurement
, Biochim. Biophys. Acta
717
, 295
–300
.94.
Allain
JC
, Le Lous
M
, Cohen-Solal
L
, Bazin
S
, and Maroteaux
P
(1980
), Isometric tensions developed during the hydrothermal swelling of rat skin
, Connect. Tissue Res.
7
, 127
–133
.95.
Horgan
DJ
, King
NL
, Kurth
LB
, and Kuypers
R
(1990
), Collagen crosslinks and their relationship to the thermal properties of calf tendons
, Arch. Biochem. Biophys.
281
, 21
–26
.96.
Allain
JC
, Le Lous
M
, Bazin
S
, Bailey
AJ
, and DeLaunay
A
(1978
), Isometric tension developed during heating of collagenous tissues, Relationship with collagen cross-linking
, Biochim. Biophys. Acta
533
, 147
–155
.97.
Lee
JM
, Pereira
CA
, Abdulla
D
, Naimark
WA
, and Crawford
I
(1995
), A multi-sample denaturation temperature tester for collagenous biomaterials
, Med. Eng. Phys.
17
, 115
–121
.98.
Viidik
A
(1972
), Aging of collagen in complex tissues, A micromethodological study of the thermal reaction
, Experientia
, 28
, 641
–642
.99.
Lennox
FG
(1949
), Shrinkage of collagen
, Biochim. Biophys. Acta
, 3
, 170
–187
.100.
Rasmussen
DM
, Wakim
KG
, and Winkelmann
RK
(1964
), Isotonic and isometric thermal contraction of human dermis. I. Technic and controlled study
, J. Invest. Dermatol.
43
, 333
–339
.101.
Chvapil
M
and Jensovsky
L
(1963
), The shrinkage temperature of collagen fibers isolated from the tail tendons of rats of various ages and from different places of the same tendon
, Gerontologia
1
, 18
–29
.102.
Tsereteli
GI
and Smirnova
OI
(1990
), Calorimetric study of vitrification of denatured collagen
, Biofizika
35
, 217
–221
.103.
Doi M and Edwards SF (1986), The Theory of Polymer Dynamics, Clarendon Press.
104.
Galisteo
ML
, Mateo
PL
, and Sanchez-Ruiz
JM
(1991
), Kinetic study on the irreversible thermal denaturation of yeast phosphoglycerate kinase
, Biochem.
30
, 2061
–2066
.105.
Gustavson KH (1956), The Chemistry and Reactivity of Collagen, Ch 9: The contraction of collagen, particularly hydrothermal shrinkage and crosslinking reactions, Academic Press, New York, 202–245.
106.
Haly
AR
and Snaith
JW
(1971
), Calorimetry of rat tail tendon collagen before and after denaturation, the heat of fusion of its absorbed water
, Biopolymers
10
, 1681
–1699
.107.
Andreassan
TT
, Seyer-Hansen
K
, and Bailey
AJ
(1981
), Thermal stability, mechanical properties and reducible cross-links of rat tall tendon in experimental diabetes
, Biochim. Biophys. Acta
677
, 313
–317
.108.
Dewey
DC
, Hopwood
LE
, Sapareto
SA
, and Gerweck
LE
(1977
), Cellular responses to combinations of hyperthermia and radiation
, Radiology
123
, 463
–474
.109.
Wall
MS
, Deng
X-H
, Torzilli
PA
, Doly
SB
, O’Brien
SJ
, and Warren
RF
(1999
), Thermal modification of collagen
, J. Shoulder Elbow Surg.
8
, 339
–344
.110.
Chen
SS
, Wright
NT
, and Humphrey
JD
(1997
), Heat-induced changes in the mechanics of a collagenous tissue, Isothermal free-shrinkage
, ASME J. Biomech. Eng.
119
, 372
–378
.111.
Chen
SS
, Wright
NT
, and Humphrev
JD
(1998
), Heat-induced changes in the mechanics of a collagenous tissue, Isothermal isotonic-shrinkage
, ASME J. Biomech. Eng.
120
, 382
–388
.112.
Davis SE, Thamire C, Wright NT (2000), Modeling of the local heating of non-perfused tissue with directionally dependent thermal diffusivity and heat-induced damage, ASME HTD 368, 75–82.
113.
Ward IM (1983), Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers, John Wiley and Sons, NY.
114.
Ferry JD (1980), Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers, John Wiley and Sons, NY.
115.
Pipkin AC (1986), Lectures on Viscoelasticity Theory, Applied Mathematical Sciences, Vol 7, Springer-Verlag, NY.
116.
Wineman A and Rajagopal KR (2000), Mechanical Response of Polymers, Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge.
117.
Wright
NT
, Chen
SS
, and Humphrey
JD
(1998
), Time-temperature equivalence in heat-induced cell damage and protein denaturation
, ASME J. Biomech. Eng.
120
, 22
–26
.118.
Bischof
JC
, Padanilam
J
, Holmes
WH
, Ezzell
RM
, Lee
RC
, Tompkins
RG
, Yarmush
ML
, and Toner
M
(1995
), Dynamics of cell membrane permeability changes at supraphysiologic temperatures
, Biophys. J.
68
, 2608
–2614
.119.
Agah
R
, Pearce
JA
, Welch
AJ
, and Motamedi
M
(1994
), Rate process model for arterial tissue thermal damage: Implications on vessel photocoagulation
, Lasers Surg. Med.
15
, 176
–184
.120.
Lawton
RW
(1954
), The thermoelastic behavior of isolated aortic strips of the dog
, Circ. Res.
2
, 344
–353
.121.
Chen
SS
, Wright
NT
, and Humphrey
JD
(1998b
), Phenomenological evolution equations for heat-induced shrinkage of a collagenous tissue
, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng.
45
, 1234
–1240
.122.
Obrzut
SL
, Hecht
P
, Hayashi
K
, Fanton
GS
, Thabit
III G
, and Markel
MD
(1998
), The effect of radiofrequency energy on the length and temperature properties of the glenohumeral joint capsule, Arthroscopy
, J Arthroscopic Related Surg.
14
, 395
–400
.123.
Wiederhorn
NH
and Reardon
GV
(1953
), Studies concerned with the structure of collagen. II Stress-strain behavior of thermally contracted collagen
, J. Appl. Polym. Sci.
9
, 315
–325
.124.
Zernicke
RF
, Vailas
AC
, Shaw
SR
, Bogey
RA
, Hart
TJ
, and Matsuda
J
(1986
), Heterogeneous mechanical response of rat knee menisci to thermomechanical stress
, Am. J. Physiol.
250
, 65
–70
.125.
Fasano
VA
, Urciuoli
R
, and Ponzio
RM
(1982
), Photocoagulation of cerebral arteriovenous malformations and arterial aneurysms with the neodymium, yttrium-aluminum-garnet or argon laser, Preliminary results in twelve patients
, Neurosurgery
11
, 754
–760
.126.
Fasano
VA
, Ponzio
RM
, Benech
F
, and Sicuro
M
(1983
), Effects of laser sources on the elastic resistance of the vessel wall, Histological and physical study
, Lasers Surg. Med.
2
, 45
–54
.127.
Consigny
PM
, Teitelbaum
GP
, Gardiner
GG
, and Kerns
WD
(1989
), Effects of laser thermal angioplasty on arterial contractions and mechanics
, Cardiovasc. Intervent Radiol.
12
, 83
–87
.128.
Spo¨rl
E
, Genth
U
, Schmalfuss
K
, and Seiler
T
(1997
), Thermomechanical behavior of the cornea
. Ger. J. Ophthalmol.
5
, 322
–327
.129.
Chen
SS
and Humphrey
JD
(1998
), Heat-induced changes in the mechanics of a collagenous tissue, Pseudoelastic behavior at 37°C
, J. Biomech.
31
, 211
–216
.130.
Kang
T
, Resar
J
, and Humphrey
JD
(1995
), Heat-induced changes in the mechanical properties of passive coronary arteries
, ASME J. Biomech. Eng.
117
, 86
–93
.131.
Jun J, Harris JL, Humphrey JD, and Rastegar S (2003), Strain-dependent, heat-induced changes in the optical properties of collagenous tissue, ASME J. Biomech. Eng. (in press).
132.
Rigby
BJ
, Hirai
R
, Spikes
JD
, and Eyring
H
(1959
), The mechanical properties of rat tail tendon
, J. Gen. Physiol.
43
, 265
–283
.133.
Cohen
RE
, Hooley
CJ
, and McCrum
NG
(1976
), Viscoelastic creep of collagenous tissue
, J. Biomech.
9
, 175
–184
.134.
Le Lous
M
, Cohen-Solal
L
, Allain
J-C
, Bonaventure
J
, and Maroteaux
P
(1985
), Age related evolution of stable collagen reticulation in human skin
, Connect. Tissue Res.
13
, 145
–155
.135.
Naimark
WA
, Waldman
SD
, Anderson
RJ
, Suzuki
B
, Pereira
CA
, and Lee
JM
(1998
), Thermomechanical analysis of collagen crosslinking in the developing lamb pericardium
, Biorheology
35
, 1
–16
.136.
Wells
SM
, Adamson
SL
, Langille
BL
, and Lee
JM
(1998
), Thermomechanical analysis of collagen crosslinking in the developing ovine thoracic aorta
, Biorheology
35
, 399
–414
.137.
Chimich
D
, Shrive
N
, Frank
C
, Marchuk
L
, and Bray
R
(1992
), Water content alters viscoelastic behaviour of the normal adolescent rabbit medial collateral ligament
, J. Biomech.
25
, 831
–837
.138.
Haut
TL
and Haut
RC
(1997
), The state of tissue hydration determines the strain-rate sensitive stiffness of human patellar tendon
, J. Biomech.
30
, 79
–81
.139.
Luescher
M
, Rueff
M
, and Schindler
P
(1974
), Effect of hydration upon the thermal stability of tropocollagen and its dependence on the presence of neutral salts
, Polymers
13
, 2489
–2503
.140.
Wright
BA
and Wiederhorn
NM
(1951
), Studies concerned with the structure of collagen, I: An X-ray investigation of the denaturation of collagen
, J. Polym. Sci.
7
, 105
–120
.141.
Esipova
NG
, Andreeva
NS
, and Gatovskaia
TV
(1958
), The role of water in the structure of collagen
, Biofizika
3
, 529
–540
.142.
Rochdi
A
, Foucat
L
, and Renou
JP
(1999
), Effect of thermal denaturation on water-collagen interactions, NMR relaxation and differential scanning calorimetry analysis
, Biopolymers
50
, 690
–696
.143.
Tzou
D-L
, Lee
S-M
, and Yeung
HN
(1997
), Temperature dependence and phase transition of proton relaxation of hydrated collagen in intact beef tendon specimens via cross-relaxation spectroscopy
, Magn. Reson. Med.
37
, 359
–365
.144.
Graham
SJ
, Stanisz
GJ
, Kecojevic
A
, Bronskill
MJ
, and Henkelman
RM
(1999
), Analysis of changes in MR properties of tissues after heat treatment
, Magn. Reson. Med.
42
, 1061
–1071
.145.
Lavenda BH (1978), Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes, Dover Publications, NY.
146.
Silhavy M (1997), The Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Continuous Media, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
147.
Coleman
BD
and Gurtin
ME
(1967
), Thermodynamics with internal state variables
, J. Chem. Phys.
47
, 597
–613
.148.
Dillon
OW
(1964
), A nonlinear thermoelasticity theory
, J. Mech. Phys. Solids
10
, 123
–131
.149.
Humphrey
JD
and Rajagopal
KR
(1998
), Constrained finite strain thermoelastic behavior of elastomers subject to biaxial loads
, J. Elast.
49
, 189
–200
.150.
Scott
NH
(2001
), Thermoelasticity with thermomechanical constraints
, Int. J. Non-Linear Mech.
36
, 549
–564
.151.
Chato JC (1987), Thermal properties of tissue, Handbook of Bioengineering, R Skalak and S Chien (eds), McGraw-Hill, NY.
152.
Diller
KR
and Ryan
TP
(1998
), Heat transfer in living systems, Current opportunities
, ASME J. Heat Transfer
120
, 810
–829
.153.
Diller KR, Valvano JW, and Pearce JA (2000), Bioheat transfer, CRC Handbook of Thermal Engineering, F Kreith (ed), CRC Press, Boca Raton, 4-114–4-187.
154.
Yang
W-H
(1993
), Thermal (heat) shock biothermomechanical viewpoint
, ASME J. Biomech. Eng.
115
, 617
–621
.155.
Valvano
JW
, Cochran
JR
, and Diller
KR
(1985
), Thermal conductivity and diffusivity of biomaterials measured with self-heated thermistors
, Int. J. Thermophys.
6
, 301
–311
.156.
Ortt
EM
, Doss
DJ
, Legall
E
, Wright
NT
, and Humphrey
JD
(2000
), A device for evaluating the multiaxial finite strain thermomechanical behavior of elastomers and soft tissues
, ASME J. Appl. Mech.
67
, 465
–471
.157.
Davis
SE
, Doss
DA
, Humphrey
JD
, and Wright
NT
(2000a
), Effects of heat-induced damage on the radial component of thermal diffusivity of bovine aorta
, ASME J. Biomech. Eng.
122
, 283
–286
.158.
Pennes
HH
(1948
), Analysis of tissue and arterial blood temperatures in the resting forearm
, J. Appl. Physiol.
1
, 93
–122
.159.
Young
LA
and Boehm
RF
(1993
), A finite difference heat transfer analysis of a percutaneous transluminal microwave angioplasty system
, ASME J. Biomech. Eng.
115
, 441
–446
.160.
Foster
KR
, Lozano-Nieto
A
, and Riu
PJ
(1998
), Heating of tissues by microwaves
, Bioelectromagnetics (N.Y.)
19
, 420
–428
.161.
Rajagopal KR and Tao L (2002), Modeling of the microwave drying process of aqueous dielectrics, Z. Angew. Math. Phys., (in press).
162.
Sankaran
V
and Walsh
JT
Jr (1998
), Birefringence measurement of rapid structural changes during collagen denaturation
, Photochem. Photobiol.
68
, 846
–851
.163.
Welch AJ and van Gemert MJC (1995), Optical-Thermal Response of Laser-Irradiated Tissue, Plenum, NY.
164.
Cheong
W-F
and Welch
AJ
(1989
), A model for optical and thermal analysis of laser balloon angioplasty
, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng.
36
, 1233
–1243
.165.
Agah
R
, Gandjbakhche
AH
, Motamedi
M
, Nossal
R
, and Bonner
RF
(1996
), Dynamics of temperature dependent optical properties of tissue: Dependence on thermally induced alteration
, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng.
43
, 839
–846
.166.
Glenn
TN
, Rastegar
S
, and Jacques
SL
(1996
), Finite element analysis of temperature controlled coagulation in laser irradiated tissue
, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng.
43
, 79
–87
.167.
Panescu
D
, Whayne
JG
, Fleischman
SD
, Mirotznik
MS
, Swanson
DK
, and Webster
JG
(1995
), Three-dimensional finite element analysis of current density and temperature distributions during radio-frequency ablation
, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng.
42
, 879
–890
.168.
Rossi
S
, Di Stasi
M
, Buscarini
E
, Cavanna
L
, Quaretti
P
, Squassante
E
, Garbagnati
F
, and Buscarini
L
(1995
), Percutaneous radiofrequency interstitial thermal ablation in the treatment of small hepatocellular carcinoma
, Cancer J. Sci. Am.
1
, 73
–81
.169.
Truesdell C and Noll W (1965), The nonlinear field theories of mechanics, Handbuch der Physik, S Flugge (ed), Vol III/3, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
170.
Rajagopal KR and Tao L (1995), Mechanics of Mixtures, World Sci Publ, Singapore.
171.
Tao
L
, Humphrey
JD
, and Rajagopal
KR
(2001
), A mixture theory for heat-induced alterations in hydration and mechanical properties in soft tissues
, Int. J. Eng. Sci.
39
, 1535
–1556
.172.
Wright
NT
and Humphrey
JD
(2002
), Denaturation of collagen via heating: An irreversible rate process
, Ann. Biomed. Eng.
4,
109
–128
.173.
Moran
K
, Anderson
P
, Hutcheson
J
, and Flock
S
(2000
), Thermally-induced shrinkage of joint capsule
, Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res.
381
, 248
–255
.174.
Angell
CA
(1995
), Formation of glasses from liquids and biopolymers
, Science
267
, 1924
–1935
.175.
Weston RE and Schwarz HA (1972), Chemical Kinetics, Prentice-Hall, NY.
176.
Ogden
RW
(1992
), On the thermoelastic modeling of rubber-like solids
, J. Therm. Stresses
15
, 533
–557
.177.
Holzapfel GA (2000), Nonlinear Solid Mechanics: A Continuum Approach for Engineering, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester.
Copyright © 2003
by ASME
You do not currently have access to this content.
